Happy reading, if you must!
1. How do Asian and western parents differ in their emotional expectations of their children?- East Asian parents encourage their children to show emotional reserve rather than to be emotionally expressive.
2. how should caregivers soothe a crying infant in distress
______________
3. emotion coaching parents- Emotion-coaching parents monitor their children’s emotions, view their children’s negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them how to deal effectively with emotions.
4. primary emotions- Primary emotions are emotions that are present in humans and other animals; these emotions appear in the first six months of the human infants’ development. Primary emotions include surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear and disgust. They are culturally universal.
5. pain cry- A sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; no preliminary moaning is present. The pain cry is stimulated by a high intensity stimulus.
6. reflexive smile- A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli and appears in the first month after birth, usually during sleep.
7. stranger anxiety- The most frequent expression of an infant’s fear involves stranger anxiety, in which an infant shows fear and a wariness of strangers. Stranger anxiety usually emerges gradually. It first appears at about six months of age in the form of wary reactions. By nine months of age, the fear of strangers is often more intense, reaching a peak toward the end of the first year of life. Not all infants show distress when they encounter a stranger. Besides individual variations, whether an infant shows stranger anxiety also depends on the social contexts and the characteristics of the stranger. Infants show less stranger anxiety when they are in familiar settings. IN one study infants showed less stranger anxiety when they encountered a stranger in their own home but much greater fear n a research laboratory. Infants also show much less fear when they are in their mother’s lap. When infants feel secure, they are much less apt to show stranger anxiety. Who the stranger is and how the stranger behaves influences S.A.
8. views on picking up a crying infant-
Behaviorist John Watson argued that parents spend too much time responding to infant’s crying. He said that the consequence is that parents reward crying and increase its incidence. Some researchers agree. Infancy experts Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby stress that you can’t respond too much to infant crying in the first year of their life. They argue that a quick, comforting response to the infant’s cries is an important ingredient in the development of a strong bond between the infant and the caregiver. IN one of Ainsworth’s studies, infants whose mothers responded quickly when they cried at three months of age cried less later in the first year of life. Controversy continues to exist. Some developmentalists argue that an infant can’t be spoiled in the first year of life, a view suggesting that parents should sooth a crying infant. This reaction should help infants develop a sense of trust and secure attachment to the caregiver.
9. Ainsworth and Bowlby on crying infant and what you should do- Infancy experts Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby stress that you can’t respond too much to infant crying in the first year of their life. They argue that a quick, comforting response to the infant’s cries is an important ingredient in the development of a strong bond between the infant and the caregiver. IN one of Ainsworth’s studies, infants whose mothers responded quickly when they cried at three months of age cried less later in the first year of life.
10. temperament- An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.
11. goodness of fit- The match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with. Some temperament characteristics pose more parenting challenges than others, at least in modern Western societies. When children are prone to distress, as exhibited by frequent crying and irritability, their parents may eventually respond by ignoring the child’s distress or trying to force the child to “behave”.
12. social referencing- “Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation. The development of social referencing helps infants to interpret ambiguous situations more accurately, as when they encounter a stranger and need to know whether to fear the person. By the end of the first year, a mother’s facial expressions—either smiling or fearful—influences whether an infant will explore an unfamiliar environment. Infants become better at social referencing in the second year of life. At this age, they tend to check with their mother before they act; they look at her to see if she is happy, angry or fearful.
13. androgens- A class of sex hormones—an important one of which is testosterone—that primarily promotes the development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics. Androgens are produced by the adrenal glands in males and females, and by the testes in males.
14. evolutionary view of gender roles- Gender roles are sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act and feel. Evolutionary psychologists argue that primarily because of their differing roles in reproduction, male and female faced different pressures in primeval environments when the human species was evolving. In particular, because having multiple sexual liaisons improves the likelihood that males will pass on their genes, natural selection favors males who adopted short-term mating strategies. These male competed with other males to acquire more resources to access females. Therefore, say evolutionary psychologists, males evolved dispositions that favored violence, competition and risk-taking. IN contrast, females contributions to the gene pool were improved by securing resources for their offspring, which was promoted by obtaining long-term mates who could support a family. As a consequence, natural selection favored females who devoted effort to parenting and chose mates who could provide their offspring with resources and protection. Females developed preferences for successful, ambitious men who could provide these resources.
15. psychoanalytic view of gender roles- Stems from Freud’s view that preschool children develop a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent, then, at 5 or 6 years of age, renounce the feeling because of anxious feelings, subsequently identifying with the same-sex parent and unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent’s characteristics.
16. gender schema theory- One influential cognitive theory which states that gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and what is gender-inappropriate in their culture. A schema is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guide an individual’s perceptions. A gender schema organizes the world in terms of male and female. Children are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schemas. Bit by bit, children pick up what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture, and develop gender schemas that shape how they perceive the world and what they remember. Children are motivated to act in ways that conform with these gender schemas. Thus, gender schemas fuel gender-typing.
17. How harsh are gender rules for males and for females? Research often indicates that gender roles often constrict boys more than girls.
18. instrumental, aggressive, expressive gender roles- These roles and traits are unequal in terms of social status and power. The traditional feminine characteristics are childlike, suitable for someone who is dependent and subordinate to others. The traditional masculine characteristics suit one to deal competently with the wider world and to wield authority.
The traits associated with males were labeled instrumental: they included characteristics such as being independent, aggressive and power-oriented. Instrumental traits associated with males suited them for the traditional masculine role of going out into the world as the breadwinner.
The traits associated with females were labeled expressive: they included characteristics such as being warm and sensitive. The expressive traits associated with the female parallel the traditional role of being the sensitive, nurturing caregiver in the home.
19. gender and success in school-
Girls scored better than boys in literacy skills. Girls earn better grades and complete high school at a higher rate than boys. Girls are more likely to be engaged with academic material, be attentive in class, put forth more academic effort, and participate more in class than boys are. Toward the end of high school, girls are less likely to plan to enter the “STEM” fields of science—technology, engineering, and math.
Boys scored better than girls in math. Males are more likely to be assigned to special/remedial education than females.
20. when do men and women "help"- Males are more likely to help in contexts where a perceived danger is present and they feel competent to help. Males are more likely than females to help a stranded person with a flat tire. In contrast, when the context involves volunteering to help a child with a personal problem, females are more likely to help than males are, because there is little danger present, and females feel more competent at nurturing.
21. rapport and report talk- Rapport talk is the language of conversation; it is a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships. Report talk is talk that is designed to give information, which includes public speaking. According to Tannen, women enjoy rapport talk more than report talk, and men’s lack of interest in rapport talk bothers many women. In contrast, men prefer to engage in report talk. Men hold center stage through such verbal performances as telling stories and jokes. They learn to use talk as a way of getting and keeping attention.
22. old men… more masculine? what?- Some developmentalists maintain there is a decreasing femininity in women and a decreasing masculinity in men when they reach the late adulthood years. The evidence suggests that older men do become more feminine –nurturant, sensitive, and so on—but it appears that older women do not necessarily become more masculine—assertive, dominant, and so on. Keep in mind that cohort effects are especially important to consider n areas such as gender roles. As sociohistorical changes take place and are assessed more frequently in life-span investigations, what were once perceived to be age effects may turn out to be cohort effects.
23. what if child raised by lesbian or gay?- p.443- Children raise by gay or lesbian parents are no more likely to be lesbian, gay or bisexual (LGB) than than children raised by heterosexual parents. There is also no evidence that being a gay male is caused by a dominant mother or a weak father, or that being a lesbian is caused by girls’ choosing male role models.
24. which STD is a virus?- Genital herpes, HPV (human papillomavirus) and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) are all STDs that are viruses.
25. adolescent older for intercourse but now does more what?_____ORAL SEX- ?
26. autonomous, relativistic, heteronomous, homonomous morality
Heteronomous morality (Piaget) – The first stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, occurring at 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. Because young children are heteronomous moralists, they judge the rightness or goodness of behavior by considering its consequences, not the intentions of the actor. To the heteronomous moralist, breaking 12 cups accidentally is worse than breaking one cup intentionally. As children develop into moral autonomists, intentions assume paramount importance.
Heteronomous morality (Kohlberg) – The first stage of preconventional reasoning in Kohlberg’s theory, in which moral thinking is tied to punishment.
Autonomous morality- the second stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, displayed by older children (about 10 years of age and older). The children become aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, and in judging an action, they should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
Relativistic morality____________________?
Homonomous morality__________________?
27. what method of research did Kohlberg use? Lawrence Kohlberg is the architect of a provocative cognitive developmental theory of moral development. ….. 20 years, unique interviews, children are presented with a series of stories in which characters face moral dilemmas.
28. preconventional, conventional, post conventional- A key concept in understanding progression through the levels and stages is that morality becomes more internal or mature. That is, the reasons for their moral decisions and values begin to go beyond the external or superficial reasons they gave when they were younger.
Preconventional—is the lowest level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. The individual’s moral reasoning is controlled primarily by external rewards and punishment.
· Stage 1—heteronomous morality is the first stage in preconventional reasoning. At this stage, moral thinking is tied to punishment. Children obey because they fear punishment for disobedience.
· Stage 2—Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange is the second stage of preconventional reasoning. Individuals reason that pursuing their own interests is the right thing to do, but they let others do the same. Thus, they think that what is right involves an equal exchange. They reason that if they are nice to others, others will be nice to them in return.
Conventional reasoning is the second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this level, individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government.
· Stage 3—Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity is Kohlberg’s third stage of moral development. At this stage, individuals value trust, caring and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments. Children and adolescents often adopt their parent’s moral standards at this stage, seeking to be thought of as a good boy/girl.
· Stage 4—Social systems morality is the fourth stage. At this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice and duty. Adolescents may reason that in order for a community to work together effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that are adhered to by its members.
Postconventional reasoning is the highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this level, the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code.
· Stage 5—Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights and principles undergird or transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws, and social systems in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values.
· Stage 6—Universal ethical principles is the 6th and highest stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person reasons that conscience must be followed, even though the decision might bring risk.
29. social contract- Stage 5—Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights and principles undergird or transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws, and social systems in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values.
30. moral lesson and disequilibrium (p. 472) – Moral reasoning reflects children’s experiences in dealing with moral questions and moral conflict. Investigators have tried to advance individual’s levels of moral development by having a model present arguments that reflect moral thinking one stage above the individual’s established levels. This approach applies the concepts of equilibrium and conflict that Piaget used to explain cognitive development. By presenting arguments slightly beyond the children’s level of moral reasoning, the researchers created a disequilibrium that motivated the children to restructure their moral thought. The upshot of studies using this approach is that virtually any plus-stage discussion, for any length of time, seems to promote more advanced moral reasoning.
31. critics of Kohlberg—
· Key criticisms involve the link between moral thought and moral behavior, the roles of culture and the family in moral development, and the significance of concern for others. K’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough on moral behavior. Moral reasons can sometimes be a shelter for immoral behavior. Whatever the latest scandal, culprits probably displayed virtuous thoughts but engaged in immoral behavior. Heinous actions can be cloaked in a mantle of moral virtue.
· Kohlberg emphasized that his stages of moral reasoning are universal, but some critics claim that his theory is culturally biased. Furthermore, Kohlberg’s scoring system does not recognize the higher-level moral reasoning of certain cultures, and thus that moral reasoning is more culture-specific than Kohlberg realized.
· In sum, although Kohlberg’s approach does not capture much of the moral reasoning voiced in various cultures around the world, his approach misses or misconstrues some important moral concepts in specific cultures.
· Kohlberg argued that family processes are essentially unimportant in children’s moral development. He argued that parent-child relationships usually provide children with little opportunity for give-and-take or perspective taking. K’ said that such opportunities are more likely provided by children’s peer relations. Did K’ underestimate the contributions of family relationships to moral development? Most developmentalists emphasize that parents play more important roles than what K’ envisioned. They stress parent’s communication, discipline techniques, and many other aspects influence children’s moral development. Nevertheless, most agree that peers play an important role.
32. Heinz dilemma, kid says shouldn't give drug because against the law - what stage is that? Stage four, Social systems morality, second part of conventional reasoning.
33. Giligan criticized Kohlberg for what? She argues that K’s theory reflects a gender bias. According to Gilligan, K’s theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others and sees the individual as standing alone and independently making moral decisions. It puts justice at the heart of morality. In contrast to K’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective, which is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others. According to Gilligan, K’ greatly underplayed the care perspective, perhaps because he was a male, because most of his research was with males, and because he used male responses as a model for his theory.
34. how do you make reward and punishment work?
_____________________________________________________?
35. moral competency vs. performance—Moral competence is the ability to perform moral behaviors. Moral performance is performing those behaviors in specific situations.
36. empathy, sympathy, conscience, guilt
· Empathy is reacting to another’s feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other’s feelings. To empathize is not just to sympathize; it is to put oneself in another’s place emotionally. Although empathy is an emotional state, it has a cognitive component—the ability to discern another’s inner psychological states, or what has been previously referred to as perspective taking. Infants have the capacity for some purely empathetic responses, but for effective moral action, children must learn to identify a wide range of emotional states in others and to anticipate what kinds of action will improve another person’s emotional state. Changes in empathy will take place in early infancy, at 1 to 2 years of age, in early childhood, and at 10-12 years of age.
· Global empathy is the young infant’s empathetic response in which clear boundaries between the feelings and needs of the self and others have not yet been established. Although global empathy is observed in some infants, it does not consistently characterize all infants’ behavior.
· Sympathy is …feeling sorry for someone else? _______________
· Conscience is the component of the superego that rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts according to ideal standards approved by the parents. According to Sigmund Freud, guilt and the desire to avoid feeling guilty are the foundation of moral behavior. In Freud’s theory, the superego is the moral branch of personality. The superego consists of two main components, the ego ideal and the conscience. The ego ideal rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts according to ideal standards approved by the parents. The conscience punishes the child for behaviors disapproved by the parents by making the child feel guilty and worthless.
· Inwardly directed hostility is experienced self-punitively and unconsciously as guilt. In the psychoanalytical account of moral development, children conform to societal standards to avoid guilt. In this way, self-control replaces parental control.
No comments:
Post a Comment